November 2024

The Kimberley Range

Leave a Comment / Features, Oceania, World /

The Kimberley Range, or the Kimberleys, in Australia is one of the most remote and geologically interesting regions in the world. In this article we take a deep dive into the region, covering its formation, size, topography, rock types, discovery and mapping, indigenous populations, historic artwork, climate, flora and fauna, as well as the threats it faces and efforts for its preservation. Where and When? The first thing to note about the Kimberley range is just how remote it is. It is found on the very north west tip of the Australian continent. It is part of the state of Western Australia, which at 2,527,013 square kilometers would just edge out Algeria to be the world’s 10th largest country were it to secede from the rest of Australia and go it alone. This vast region contains a population of just 2.8 million people, which would put it at 136 on a list of the most populous countries. For context, Algeria, its nearest neighbour in land area is itself a relatively sparsely populated country, and has a population of 46 million people. The capital of our imaginary new nation of western Australia would be Perth, a city located 1,670 km to the south, containing 2.3 million people of that total. This leaves just half a million people spread throughout the remaining 2.5m kilometers squared. In short, the Kimberleys are remote.  The Kimberley Range is also an ancient landscape. It was formed as part of the Kimberley Craton, which began forming 2.5 billion years ago. Today’s surface is likely to have solidified during the Proterozoic Eon, around 1.8 billion years ago. The range was primarily shaped by volcanic activity, tectonic movements, and erosion processes. Since the surface layer solidified,  Layers of volcanic rock and sediment have further shaped the landscape. Whilst the region is not directly on a tectonic plate boundary, the Eurasion plate and the Indo-Australian plate run along the southern edge of the lesser Sunda Islands just across the Timor sea. Topology The Kimberley region covers a vast area of about 423,000 square kilometers (163,000 square miles), just a little smaller than the country of Iraq. This makes  it one of Australia’s largest wilderness areas. The age of the surface rocks and the relative lack of tectonic activity in the area has allowed time to weather and round the higher peaks of the area, giving the Kimberleys a more gentle and rolling landscape. The highest peaks in the Kimberleys all sit in the Wunaamin Miliwundi Range in the south of the Kimberleys. Mount Broome, which stands at 946 meters (3,104 feet) above sea level, is the region’s highest peak.  Rock Types The geology of the Kimberley Range is diverse, featuring a variety of rock types that tell the story of its ancient past. The region is predominantly composed of sandstone, basalt, and granite. The sandstone formations, such as those found in the Bungle Bungles (Purnululu National Park), are particularly notable for their striking beehive-shaped domes. These sandstone structures were formed over millions of years through the deposition of sand, followed by compaction and cementation. Basalt, a type of volcanic rock, is also prominent in the Kimberley. It formed from ancient lava flows that spread across the landscape, creating solidified layers of volcanic rock. Granite outcrops are found throughout the region, formed from slow-cooling magma beneath the Earth’s surface. These granite formations add to the geological complexity and visual diversity of the Kimberley Range. Indigenous Populations The Kimberley region has been inhabited by indigenous peoples for tens of thousands of years. The traditional custodians of the land include several Aboriginal groups, such as the Wunambal, Gaambera, Ngarinyin, and Bunuba peoples. These communities have a profound spiritual and cultural connection to the land, which is reflected in their stories, rituals, and art. Indigenous Australians in the Kimberley have a deep understanding of the land and its resources, developed through generations of living in harmony with their environment. Their knowledge of local flora and fauna, as well as their land management practices, has been crucial for the survival and preservation of the region. Historic Artwork The Kimberley is home to some of the most significant and ancient rock art in the world. Indigenous rock art sites, such as those found in the Bradshaw (Gwion Gwion) and Wandjina styles, provide a perspective on the rich cultural heritage of the region’s Aboriginal peoples. These artworks, some of which are believed to be over 17,000 years old, depict ancestral beings, animals, and human figures, often in intricate and symbolic detail. The Gwion Gwion art is characterized by elegant, elongated human figures adorned with ceremonial dress and accessories. The Wandjina art, on the other hand, features large, stylized human figures with distinctive halo-like headdresses and expressive faces. These artworks are not merely decorative; they hold profound spiritual significance and convey stories, laws, and traditions passed down through generations. European Discovery and Mapping European discovery and mapping of the Kimberley Range began in the early 19th century. The first recorded European to sight the region was William Dampier, an English explorer, who visited the northwestern coast of Australia in 1688 and again in 1699. However, comprehensive exploration and mapping did not occur until the late 19th century. In 1879, Alexander Forrest, an Australian explorer, led an expedition through the Kimberley, documenting the landscape and its potential for settlement. His journey provided valuable insights into the region’s geography and resources. Subsequent expeditions by geologists and surveyors in the early 20th century further mapped the area, uncovering its rich mineral deposits and unique geological features. Climate The Kimberley region experiences a tropical monsoon climate, with distinct wet and dry seasons. The wet season, from November to April, brings heavy rainfall, thunderstorms, and occasional cyclones. This period is crucial for replenishing water sources and sustaining the region’s diverse ecosystems. The dry season, from May to October, is marked by clear skies, warm temperatures, and low humidity. During this time, rivers run dry and water becomes scarce. The contrast between the

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South Georgia and the Sandwich Islands

Leave a Comment / Antarctica, Features, World /

South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands are a remote and rugged British Overseas Territory located in the southern Atlantic Ocean. This territory, known for its dramatic landscapes and rich biodiversity, consists of the main island of South Georgia and the smaller South Sandwich Islands. These islands have a fascinating geological history, a unique ecosystem, and a complex human history that has shaped their current status. Location and Formation South Georgia is situated about 1,300 kilometers southeast of the Falkland Islands and approximately 2,000 kilometers east of South America’s southern tip. The South Sandwich Islands lie further southeast of South Georgia, forming a volcanic island arc. The islands are positioned along the Scotia Arc, a geological formation that links the Andes in South America to the Antarctic Peninsula.  The formation of South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands can be traced back to tectonic activity associated with the South American Plate and the Antarctic Plate. South Georgia is primarily composed of sedimentary rocks formed during the Jurassic period, around 150 million years ago. These rocks were later uplifted due to tectonic forces. The South Sandwich Islands are much younger, with ongoing volcanic activity that continues to shape their landscape. The islands themselves are volcanic in origin, with Mount Belinda on Montagu Island being an active volcano. Historic exploitation The first recorded sighting of South Georgia was by the English merchant Anthony de la Roché in 1675. However, it was not until 1775 that Captain James Cook made the first documented landing on the island during his second voyage. Cook claimed the island for Britain and named it “Isle of Georgia” in honor of King George III. The South Sandwich Islands were later discovered by Captain James Cook in 1775, during the same voyage. South Georgia has a significant history of human exploitation, particularly during the 19th and early 20th centuries when it was a hub for the whaling industry. Whaling stations were established on the island, and for several decades, South Georgia was the center of the southern hemisphere’s whaling operations. At its peak, the islands were home to around 2,000 people. Most were transient sailors, but others were near permanent residents on the island, all of the population was associated with the whaling industry in one capacity or another.   The remnants of the whaling era are still visible today, with rusting equipment and abandoned buildings serving as reminders of this period. The whaling industry had a profound impact on the local ecosystem, with many whale species becoming endangered due to over-exploitation. Whalers targeted species like the blue whale, fin whale, and humpback whale, leading to a drastic decline in whale populations. This is particularly problematic due to the long breeding cycles of many of the species targeted making replenishment difficult. By the mid-20th century, the whaling industry had collapsed, and the whaling stations were abandoned. A Remarkable Rescue The island is closely associated with the famous Antarctic explorer Sir Ernest Shackleton. Shackleton’s ill-fated Endurance expedition in 1914-1917 is one of the most remarkable stories of survival in polar exploration history. After their ship was trapped and crushed by pack ice, the entire crew were forced to abandon ship onto the pack ice and make their way to the nearest land with whatever they could carry. Upon reaching land, a plan was devised to reach safety.  So it was that Shackleton and 5 of his crew made an arduous journey rowing from Elephant island on the very tip of the Antarctic peninsula to South Georgia. A journey of some 1,300 kilometers across the treacherous Southern Ocean. They later mounted a successful rescue mission for the remaining crew still stranded on Elephant island. Despite losing their ship to the Antarctic winter ice and being stranded on the inhospitable and barron Elephant Island, not a single member of the crew was lost. It was a remarkable result at a time where loss of entire ships with all hands was a routine occupational hazard. Shackleton’s epic voyage and subsequent rescue mission are commemorated on the island. Visitors can visit Grytviken, the site of the former whaling station, where Shackleton’s grave and a small museum dedicated to his exploits are located. Grytviken serves as a poignant reminder of the island’s role in the history of polar exploration and the enduring human spirit. Shackleton and cres launching the James Caird from Elephant Island Probably Frank Hurley, the expedition’s photographer, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons Flora and Forna The harsh climatic conditions and rugged terrain of South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands limit the types of vegetation that can survive there. The flora primarily consists of hardy mosses, lichens, and tussock grasses that have adapted to the cold and windy environment. These plants play a crucial role in stabilizing the soil and providing habitat for various animal species. There are no trees or bushes higher than a few centimeters tall. Despite the limited plant life, the islands are renowned for their rich and diverse fauna. South Georgia, in particular, is a haven for wildlife, hosting large populations of seals, penguins, and seabirds. The island is home to several species of seals, including the Antarctic fur seal and the southern elephant seal. The populations are all supported almost exclusively on the rich abundance of sealife surrounding the islands.  The birdlife on South Georgia is equally impressive. Albatrosses, petrels, and skuas are among the many seabird species that nest on the island. The South Georgia pipit, the world’s southernmost songbird, is endemic to the island. South Georgia is also one of the world’s most important breeding grounds for king penguins, with colonies numbering in the hundreds of thousands Current uses Today, there is no permanent population on the island, although the British Antarctic Survey and other research groups have bases with rotating personnel completing scientific research. The economy of South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands is primarily based on fisheries and tourism, but with no permanent population, and no real need for the normal societal

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Washington D.C.

Leave a Comment / Features, North America, World /

There’s something undemocratic at the heart of US democracy. The very ground that the US Capitol building, the Whitehouse, the US Supreme court, the Lincoln and Washington monuments, and all the famous buildings synonymous with US democracy all sit in a city without a voice. The people of Washington DC may be surrounded by the infrastructure of US democracy, but the very proximity to political power means the residents of D.C do not enjoy the same representation as every other American citizen.  In order to make sense of this, we need to head all the way back to the founding of the US itself. In this article we will look at the foundation of this great city, the strategic reasons for its location, its intricate relationship with politics and more specifically, the reasons behind the lack of representation in the US congress.  The Birth of a National Capital Washington DC is not an old city, even by American standards. Many of the cities that we know and love were founded and thriving long before the establishment of Washington DC. Cities such as Albany and Jersey City had been settled for well over 100 years by the time they broke ground in Washington DC. Philadelphia, which served as the fledgling nation’s capital city on and off throughout the latter part of the 1700s, was the largest city of the 13 colonies with close to 40,000 people. Philadelphia, along with other cities such as Boston and New Amsterdam (soon to be renamed to its more familiar New York) were instrumental in the formation of the US constitution and the first continental congresses in a way that Washington DC simply wasn’t.  With all these thriving metropolises, why bother with a new capital at all? And when exactly did the city come into existence if so much of early American history had already taken place elsewhere? It’s fair to say that this period was rather a busy one in the history of the USA. The 13 colonies had just fought, and won, a bruising and bloody revolutionary war against the British and were in full swing with the crafting of the US constitution. At that time, the 13 colonies thought of themselves almost as independent nations with a shared goal of ridding themselves of the British almost as much as they thought of themselves as a single nation. With this delicate balance in mind, the Founding Fathers sought a neutral location that would not favor any particular state, thereby avoiding regional biases. The location for the capital was selected by three of the big hitters of US history.  President Washington himself, in collaboration with Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson and Treasury Secretary Alexander Hamilton. The Residence Act of 1790, signed by President George Washington, authorized the creation of a new capital along the Potomac River. The city was named in honor of George Washington, and “District of Columbia” was chosen to reflect Christopher Columbus. Pierre Charles L’Enfant, a French engineer and architect, was commissioned to design the city, envisioning grand avenues and significant public spaces that would embody the young nation’s aspirations. Where to put a national capital The Whitehouse The placement of Washington, D.C., along the Potomac River was a strategic decision influenced by several factors. As a matter of principle, the founders believed that the capital should be a federal city, and not beholden to any one state. For this reason, in the very first article of the constitution, the matter of the capital was explicitly settled with section 8 stating that congress shall have the power “to exercise exclusive legislation in all cases whatsoever, over such district (not exceeding ten miles square) as may …..” The clause goes on to talk about cession and other technical matters, suffice to say, the framers of the constitution thought that the independence from local politics of a new capital was very important.  Next up was a point of perception. Alexander Hamilton believed that the US government should be seen in good standing among other nations. The fledgling nation should therefore pay its debts, and by extension, the debts of the 13 founding colonies. This was an issue for the southern states that had paid off their debts and did not want to see the northern states benefit from debt relief. The compromise was for northern states to forego their claim that the capital should continue to be Philadelphia or New York, and the southern states would agree to the federalisation of all debts into the new government. The capital would then be sited in a central location. The final reason is purely practical, the Potomac River provided a navigable waterway that facilitated trade and transportation. The colonies stretched some 2,100km from Georgia in the south, up the eastern seaboard, to Maine (then a province of Massachusetts) in the north. This at a time when overland travel was in horse drawn carriages. In short, it needed to be central.  The proximity to important cities like Baltimore and Philadelphia also made it a convenient choice. Additionally, the land for the new capital was donated by the states of Maryland and Virginia. The new country finally had a political heart!  Planning and construction began almost immediately. The announcement of the site was made by President Washington on January 24th 1791 and the cornerstone of the Whitehouse was laid on October 13th 1792. Just 9 years after the initial building works, the 1800 census showed a population of 8,144. It was a staggeringly successful opening decade. But, I hear you say….what on earth does any of this have to do with a deficit in democracy for the people of Washington DC? Population explosion Arial view of Washington D.C. Roll forwards a few hundred years and Washington, D.C. is a melting pot of cultures and ethnicities, reflecting the broader diversity of the United States. The demographic composition includes a significant African American community, making up about 45% of the population. This is followed by White (36%), Hispanic or

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