Oceania

The Kimberley Range, or the Kimberleys, in Australia is one of the most remote and geologically interesting regions in the world. In this article we take a deep dive into the region, covering its formation, size, topography, rock types, discovery and mapping, indigenous populations, historic artwork, climate, flora and fauna, as well as the threats it faces and efforts for its preservation. Where and When? The first thing to note about the Kimberley range is just how remote it is. It is found on the very north west tip of the Australian continent. It is part of the state of Western Australia, which at 2,527,013 square kilometers would just edge out Algeria to be the world’s 10th largest country were it to secede from the rest of Australia and go it alone. This vast region contains a population of just 2.8 million people, which would put it at 136 on a list of the most populous countries. For context, Algeria, its nearest neighbour in land area is itself a relatively sparsely populated country, and has a population of 46 million people. The capital of our imaginary new nation of western Australia would be Perth, a city located 1,670 km to the south, containing 2.3 million people of that total. This leaves just half a million people spread throughout the remaining 2.5m kilometers squared. In short, the Kimberleys are remote.  The Kimberley Range is also an ancient landscape. It was formed as part of the Kimberley Craton, which began forming 2.5 billion years ago. Today’s surface is likely to have solidified during the Proterozoic Eon, around 1.8 billion years ago. The range was primarily shaped by volcanic activity, tectonic movements, and erosion processes. Since the surface layer solidified,  Layers of volcanic rock and sediment have further shaped the landscape. Whilst the region is not directly on a tectonic plate boundary, the Eurasion plate and the Indo-Australian plate run along the southern edge of the lesser Sunda Islands just across the Timor sea. Topology The Kimberley region covers a vast area of about 423,000 square kilometers (163,000 square miles), just a little smaller than the country of Iraq. This makes  it one of Australia’s largest wilderness areas. The age of the surface rocks and the relative lack of tectonic activity in the area has allowed time to weather and round the higher peaks of the area, giving the Kimberleys a more gentle and rolling landscape. The highest peaks in the Kimberleys all sit in the Wunaamin Miliwundi Range in the south of the Kimberleys. Mount Broome, which stands at 946 meters (3,104 feet) above sea level, is the region’s highest peak.  Rock Types The geology of the Kimberley Range is diverse, featuring a variety of rock types that tell the story of its ancient past. The region is predominantly composed of sandstone, basalt, and granite. The sandstone formations, such as those found in the Bungle Bungles (Purnululu National Park), are particularly notable for their striking beehive-shaped domes. These sandstone structures were formed over millions of years through the deposition of sand, followed by compaction and cementation. Basalt, a type of volcanic rock, is also prominent in the Kimberley. It formed from ancient lava flows that spread across the landscape, creating solidified layers of volcanic rock. Granite outcrops are found throughout the region, formed from slow-cooling magma beneath the Earth’s surface. These granite formations add to the geological complexity and visual diversity of the Kimberley Range. Indigenous Populations The Kimberley region has been inhabited by indigenous peoples for tens of thousands of years. The traditional custodians of the land include several Aboriginal groups, such as the Wunambal, Gaambera, Ngarinyin, and Bunuba peoples. These communities have a profound spiritual and cultural connection to the land, which is reflected in their stories, rituals, and art. Indigenous Australians in the Kimberley have a deep understanding of the land and its resources, developed through generations of living in harmony with their environment. Their knowledge of local flora and fauna, as well as their land management practices, has been crucial for the survival and preservation of the region. Historic Artwork The Kimberley is home to some of the most significant and ancient rock art in the world. Indigenous rock art sites, such as those found in the Bradshaw (Gwion Gwion) and Wandjina styles, provide a perspective on the rich cultural heritage of the region’s Aboriginal peoples. These artworks, some of which are believed to be over 17,000 years old, depict ancestral beings, animals, and human figures, often in intricate and symbolic detail. The Gwion Gwion art is characterized by elegant, elongated human figures adorned with ceremonial dress and accessories. The Wandjina art, on the other hand, features large, stylized human figures with distinctive halo-like headdresses and expressive faces. These artworks are not merely decorative; they hold profound spiritual significance and convey stories, laws, and traditions passed down through generations. European Discovery and Mapping European discovery and mapping of the Kimberley Range began in the early 19th century. The first recorded European to sight the region was William Dampier, an English explorer, who visited the northwestern coast of Australia in 1688 and again in 1699. However, comprehensive exploration and mapping did not occur until the late 19th century. In 1879, Alexander Forrest, an Australian explorer, led an expedition through the Kimberley, documenting the landscape and its potential for settlement. His journey provided valuable insights into the region’s geography and resources. Subsequent expeditions by geologists and surveyors in the early 20th century further mapped the area, uncovering its rich mineral deposits and unique geological features. Climate The Kimberley region experiences a tropical monsoon climate, with distinct wet and dry seasons. The wet season, from November to April, brings heavy rainfall, thunderstorms, and occasional cyclones. This period is crucial for replenishing water sources and sustaining the region’s diverse ecosystems. The dry season, from May to October, is marked by clear skies, warm temperatures, and low humidity. During this time, rivers run dry and water becomes scarce. The contrast between the

Uluru, (we will not be using the term ‘Ayers Rock’) is a sandstone monolith in the Northern Territory in Australia. It’s a geological wonder in its own right, but it’s also a cultural and spiritual icon for the indigenous Anangu people. This article explores the formation and geological characteristics of Uluru, its cultural importance, its troubled history with non-indigenous people, and the journey towards its return to indigenous ownership. How a monolith forms Uluru’s formation dates back 550 million years. During the late Neoproterozoic and early Cambrian periods, at this time life was just getting started with the world famous Cambrian explosion. The region was part of an inland sea. Over time, sediments were washed from land, through river systems, and found their way to this sea. Through the eons the relentless depositing of minute amounts of sand and gravel compressed into sandstone and conglomerate rock formations.  Around 400 million years ago, just as the first insects began to appear in the fossil record, tectonic activity began to shift these rock layers. The crust buckled and folded as two converging plates pushed relentlessly together, creating large folds and faults known as an inselberg or “island mountain.” Eventually, one of these inselbergs broke the surface and was exposed to the elements. This is how the great monolith came into being. If you look closely, you can still sort of make out the rock strata running diagonally down the face of Uluru as erosion has continued to weather away the softer rock Size and Shape Uluru is the second largest monolith in the world, behind Mount Augustus, also in Australia. It stands 348 meters (1,142 feet) high. Much like an iceberg, most of its bulk lies underground. It has a circumference of about 9.4 kilometers (5.8 miles). The rock is 2.2 kilometers (1.4 miles) long and 1.6 kilometers (1 mile) wide. Its surface is characterized by its deep grooves, ridges, and caves formed by erosion. The rock’s striking red color comes from its iron oxide coating, which contrasts with the non-weathered grey rock beneath. The colors of Uluru change dramatically at different times of the day and year, ranging from deep reds and purples at sunrise and sunset to softer ochres and browns during the day. Similar Formations Around the World While Uluru is unique in many ways, there are similar formations around the world that share certain geological characteristics: Kata Tjuta (The Olgas):  Located about 25 kilometers (16 miles) west of Uluru, Kata Tjuta is a group of large, domed rock formations. Like Uluru, they are composed of conglomerate rock and hold significant cultural importance for the Anangu people. Devils Tower (Wyoming, USA):  This monolithic igneous formation rises 386 meters (1,267 feet) above the surrounding terrain. It is composed of phonolite porphyry and has significant cultural importance for several Native American tribes. Sigiriya (Sri Lanka):  Also known as Lion Rock, Sigiriya is an ancient rock fortress. Rising 200 meters (660 feet) above the jungle, it is composed of hardened magma from an extinct volcano and is surrounded by the remnants of gardens and palaces. El Capitan (California, USA):  Perhaps one of the few monoliths that rival Uluru in recognizability. This vertical rock formation in Yosemite National Park is made of granite and rises about 900 meters (3,000 feet) from the valley floor. It is a popular destination for rock climbers. Cultural importance to the Anangu people For the Anangu, the traditional owners of Uluru, the rock is a sacred site. It is intertwined with Tjukurpa, often translated as “Dreamtime” or “the Dreaming,” which encompasses the spiritual beliefs, law, and history of the Anangu people. Uluru is considered a living cultural landscape, and its features are linked to ancestral beings who traveled across the land, creating the world and laying down laws and customs. The Anangu have a deep spiritual connection to Uluru, and it features prominently in their creation stories and rituals. The rock’s various caves, waterholes, and rock formations are considered sacred sites are associated with different ancestral beings, rituals, ceremonies and stories Cultural Practices and Knowledge The Anangu people have traditionally used the land around Uluru for hunting, gathering, and ceremonies. Their knowledge of the local flora and fauna, weather patterns, and land management practices has been passed down through generations. This traditional ecological knowledge is essential for maintaining the health of the landscape and preserving biodiversity. There are several sites within and around Uluru that have gender specific roles in Anangu culture. There are strict protocols within the culture that the Anangu men and women do not interfere with each other’s sacred sites and cultural practices. The sites are not widely known and the exact location of virtually all of the sites are known only to the Anangu people.  The Anangu people have a rich oral history with stories of their ancestors, their travels and of the history of the land. Much of the history of the Anangu people can also be found in cave art found throughout Uluru. The Anangu people have a distinctive dot-painting style. This tradition continues to this day, with Anangu artists continuing to create artworks depicting Tjukurpa stories.  Initial European Discovery and Naming Sir Henry Ayers Photographer: J. Hubert Newman., Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons After many thousands of years of aboriginal stewardship of Uluru the South Australian government was on the hunt for new lands to colonise. In 1873, the South Australian government was looking for new pasture land, or areas for future development. They engaged William Gosse, the British born explorer, to map a large region of Australia to the south of Alice springs. He departed Alice springs on 21st of April 1873 with a crewe of 7 people – including 3 Afghans and an aboriginal boy named Moses. On 19th June of that year, Uluru was first sighted by Europeans. Gosse named it Ayers Rock in honor of Sir Henry Ayers, the Chief Secretary of South Australia. This name became the commonly used term for Uluru in Western contexts,